Asia is now predominantly urban. The UN statistics of 2022 state that nearly 2.7 billion people, which is roughly 54 per cent of Asian people, are now living in cities. Some of the most populous cities of the continent include Delhi, Tokyo, Shanghai, Mumbai, Beijing, Karachi, Dhaka, Kolkata, and so on. Asian cities are experiencing rapid urbanisation. People are migrating from rural to urban centres in search of better economic opportunities and better living standards. But this is also happening because of the economic strategies being located in specific countries. Let us have a generalised look at the way in which these countries evolved after a prolonged struggle against colonialism and how the push was for industrialisation and thus urbanisation
The struggle for independence in Asia was a complex and multifaceted process. In fact, most of the countries got independence in the mid part of the 20th century. While India and Pakistan gained independence from British rule in August 1947. Indonesia got independence from the colonial Dutch rule on August 17, 1945. Vietnam gained independence from French rule on September 2, 1945, and then had to face a long war with the Americans for unifying the country. Korea was divided into North and South after World War II with North Korea gaining independence from Japanese colonial rule on August 15, 1945, and South Korea gaining independence in August 1948, after a period of occupation by the US. China got independence in 1949 and Myanmar in 1948.
These are just a few examples of the prominent struggles in the Asian region which were led by an innate desire of shaping one’s own future which is self-reliant and economically independent. The ruling classes of respective countries shaped their economic trajectories. Let us have a look at how this was done.
• State-led capitalist development or import substitution industrialisation is a model that was adopted by many Asian countries including India, Indonesia, and even Pakistan. It involved the government using protectionist policies to limit imports and promote domestic industries or the national bourgeoisie.
• Export oriented industrialisation as adopted by Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore. Of course, each of these countries had its strengths and bulwarks for such a growth strategy.
• China and Vietnam went in for massive land reforms and developed a surge in demand. Government-led efforts to modernise agriculture, increase food production, reduce poverty and improve standards of living were the guiding principles. This was a socialist model where agrarian reforms were the key to development.
• Thailand and Malaysia went in for market reforms quite early and it involved liberalising their economy and promoting private capital. The goal was to attract foreign investment and increase
economic growth.
The Asian economies which were predominantly based on the production of primary goods in search of technology and the production of secondary goods went into unbalanced deals with the developed world. The old cities turned into industrial hubs and new ones were built across the continent. In India and Pakistan, there was a massive challenge of refugees after the partition took place in 1947. Issues like housing, decent work, etc dominated some of the major demands of the working population in the continent.
The Neoliberal Phase of Development
The opening up of the economies across the continent started with the onset of two important historical moments. First, the fall of the Soviet Union and the General Agreement on Tariff and Trade (GATT) into the World Trade Organisation (WTO). The cities that were considered hubs of manufacturing started losing out to more KPOs and BPOs. A large capital inflow started entering some of the major cities of the continent.
Changing Condition of Work
This form of urbanisation definitely is diverse but has led to a change in the working conditions of the people. There is more informality that has entered the cities and the working population finds it difficult to bargain for the rights that they used to in the past. The significant impact on the working population has been:
• Covid-19 has impacted Asian cities and their working people the hardest. Many businesses were closed or their operation was reduced, thus leading to job losses, salary cuts, and also reduced working hours.
• Rapid urbanisation continues in Asian cities and this has also resulted in a non-commensurate provision for housing and squeezing of the social sector. Thus, there is a widening income gap and massive inequity existing in urban Asia.
• As pointed out, informal sector is widely prevalent in cities and with this is added limited job security, low wages, and hardly any social protection.
• The Artificial Intelligence (AI) is entering Asian cities. With little skill development, job displacement is taking place at a rapid pace.
• Though women in the workforce are increasing in Asian cities, however, the challenges of gender discrimination, unequal pay, and limited opportunities continue to plague the environment.
Climate change & its impact
The vast region of the Asian continent is experiencing one of the worst forms of climate and natural disasters in the world. The impact on the lives of people is massive.
The Asian continent has a coastline of nearly 2,18,541 km making it the continent with the longest coastline in the world. The latest Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports have pointed out that the 2o rise in temperature over the industrial revolution base, would mean losing many of the Asian cities. Mumbai may lose 50 per cent of its geographical area. Likewise, most Asian cities are extremely vulnerable to the impacts of climate change.
The Asian continent also has the highest peak in the work with the youngest mountain ranges, the Himalayas. The mountain cities continue to face the wrath of the formation of this mountain range. And the region is in seismic zone IV and V. Hence the infrastructure built in the continent is extremely vulnerable to both climate and natural disasters. However, the push from the national and provincial governments to harness hydropower and enhance productivity is further enhancing the vulnerability of the region.
Likewise, the continent is also filled with major river systems of the world. The major rivers include Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra, Yangtze, and Mekong river flow through several countries in Southeast Asia including China, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam. River systems are also affected by climate change as flooding is becoming a common phenomenon.
Alternatives required
Though there cannot be a generalised form of urban development model for Asian cities, however, it is pertinent to mention what we discussed at the Habitat III conference in Quito. John Closs, the then Executive Director, UN Habitat, while speaking about the unsustainability of the current models of urbanisation across the globe vehemently said, “the last few decades of laissez-faire in urban development and planning must be given up and we need to go back to the basics of planning. That is, cities must be planned for its people.”
I think a similar call is required for the cities in Asia for a more planned intervention keeping two aspects and the core: people and climate.
To sum up what is required in Asian cities, here are some key points:
• Transport in urban Asia should primarily be public transportation, focusing on cycling, and walking, thus reducing congestion and air pollution.
• Green infrastructure: Building green spaces and reducing land use change. Maintaining biodiversity and reducing the heat island effect. The poor suffer the most because of the loss of urban commons.
• Waste is a major issue in the Asian region. Effective ways for waste management in cities. Instead of capital-intensive technologies, basic strategies like recycling, and composting will reduce the size of landfills.
• Water management is a key area for sustainability in urban Asia. Too much reliance on technology will not serve the purpose. The cities must be strengthened and potable water must be made a right and should not just remain under the domain of ‘need’.
• Inclusive societies are required in urban centres. The inclusivity should be both on social and economic parameters. The right to the city must be revisited. All members of the city life must have access to basic services such as healthcare, education, housing, etc. Simultaneously there should be social inclusion and ghettoisation must be restricted.